How was the canon of the Bible decided?

Divine Inspiration and Human Recognition

The most fundamental aspect of the biblical canon is that the books are considered inspired by God. The Apostle Peter writes, "For no prophecy was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit" (2 Peter 1:21). This divine origin is the ultimate basis for the authority and inclusion of any book in the canon. The role of humans, whether individual authors, prophets, apostles, or later councils, was primarily to recognize and affirm what God had already inspired.

The Old Testament Canon

The Old Testament canon was a collection of sacred writings developed and recognized by the Israelite community over many centuries. By the time of Jesus, there was a well-established understanding of what constituted the Jewish Scriptures. Jesus himself frequently refers to the Old Testament as authoritative, citing passages from the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms (Luke 24:44). He affirmed the existing canon of his day. The Jews divided their sacred writings into three main categories: the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nevi'im), and the Writings (Ketuvim). This three-part division is often referred to as the Tanakh. While there were some discussions around certain books, particularly in the Hellenistic period, the core of the Hebrew canon was relatively stable long before the Christian era. Josephus, a first-century Jewish historian, speaks of a fixed number of sacred books held by the Jews, emphasizing their divine origin and the reverence with which they were treated.

The New Testament Canon

The process for the New Testament canon was similar in principle but unfolded within early Christianity. The apostles and their close associates wrote letters and Gospels that quickly gained authority among the fledgling Christian communities. Paul's letters, for instance, were circulated and read in churches, and Peter even refers to Paul's writings as "Scripture" (2 Peter 3:15-16), indicating their immediate authoritative status.

Several criteria guided the early church in recognizing canonical New Testament books:

1. Apostolicity: Was the book written by an apostle or a close associate of an apostle (e.g., Mark with Peter, Luke with Paul)? This ensured a direct link to those who were eyewitnesses of Jesus' life and ministry and entrusted with his authority (Acts 1:21-22).
2. Orthodoxy: Did the book conform to the "rule of faith," the teachings already accepted by the apostles and consistent with the Old Testament? Books promoting heretical views were rejected.
3. Catholicity/Widespread Acceptance: Was the book widely recognized and used by the churches across the Christian world? Popularity and acceptance by diverse communities indicated its general recognition as inspired.
4. Divine Quality: Did the book bear intrinsic evidence of God's inspiration? Did it possess spiritual power and transforming ability in the lives of believers?

Initially, various local collections of New Testament books emerged. The four Gospels were quickly received as authoritative, as were Paul's letters. By the end of the second century, major figures like Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement of Alexandria cite most of the 27 books that comprise our current New Testament. They indicate a broad agreement, even if minor disagreements about a few books (e.g., Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, Revelation) persisted in some regions.

Formally Affirming the Canon

While the church largely recognized the canonical books organically, formal councils later affirmed these collections. The Council of Laodicea (c. 363 AD) and the Councils of Hippo (393 AD) and Carthage (397 AD) are often cited. These councils did not create the canon but rather acknowledged and officially ratified the books that the Christian communities had already widely accepted as inspired and authoritative for several centuries. Athanasius of Alexandria, in his 39th Festal Letter (367 AD), listed the same 27 books of the New Testament that are accepted today, marking a significant early declaration of the full canon. These councils served to formalize what was already largely agreed upon, especially in response to various heresies and competing claims about sacred texts.

Differences Among Christians

It is important to note that while Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox Christians share the same 27 books in the New Testament, there are differences regarding the Old Testament canon. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox traditions include certain books, often referred to as the Apocrypha or deuterocanonical books, which are not found in the Hebrew Bible or accepted as canonical by Protestants. These books were written during the intertestamental period. Protestants generally align with the shorter Hebrew canon of the Old Testament, believing these books, while historically valuable, do not meet the criteria for divine inspiration and canonicity. Despite these differences, all major Christian traditions agree on the core principle of divine inspiration and the authority of the canonical books they accept.